Overview
The era opens with Alexander the Great’s conquest in 332 BC and the founding of Alexandria in 331 BC. After Alexander’s death in 323 BC, his general Ptolemy took Egypt, declaring himself King Ptolemy I Soter in 305 BC. His Greek-speaking Macedonian dynasty ruled as pharaohs, fusing Greek and Egyptian traditions through royal cults and temple building at Edfu, Dendera, and Philae.
Key developments
Alexandria became the Mediterranean’s leading city of learning and trade, home to the Library and the Mouseion, and to the Pharos lighthouse, counted among the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The dynasty peaked under Ptolemy II Philadelphus. The Rosetta Stone bears a decree issued for Ptolemy V in 196 BC.
End and transition
The later era brought dynastic infighting, native revolts, and growing dependence on Rome. The last ruler, Cleopatra VII, was defeated at Actium in 31 BC; after her death in 30 BC, Rome annexed Egypt.